Personal Statement for Bioinformatics Graduate Program

For Bioinformatics Graduate Program - Personal Statement Example At High School, my plans for the future centered on my becoming a practicing doctor, with the skill of healing patients. I must admit that I had to overcome the disadvantage of a relatively weak foundation in Science, as a result of my Middle School curriculum in China, which did not include Biology. The language barrier also proved difficult to break during the initial years of my arrival in the USA, and my focus then was on mastering English and Mathematics, and understanding American culture. The scientific terms in Biology were difficult to come to grips with! However, my determination to enter the field of Medicine kept me going. The same determination is now my tool in my effort to overcome any shortcomings in my academic career. I am very aware that my GRE writing score of 3 could have been higher, and am determined to identify and address this through repeated practice of writing skills. A career in medicine continued to be my goal as I stood on the threshold of my freshman y ear at the University of California, Davis. However, the first Molecular Cellular Biology class I attended at the UC Davis, discussing gene therapy, proved to be a revelation to me: I had discovered the interest of my life! I was fascinated by the intricacies and application of genetics: especially in the area of finding epigenetic information. Here was a new front in the battle against chronic disease. As I continued to take additional technical electives in Molecular Biology, Microbiology, and Biotechnology, I came to realize that genetics is one of the most powerful tools available to humanity in the field of medicine. Gene association studies and single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) detection can be used in disease prediction, thus potentially preventing disease formation. Genetics is the cutting-edge of health-care research and personalized medicine. The next step in my academic evolution was my realization of the power of technology. As the only child of immigrant parents who were focused on earning a living, the computer has been a good friend of mine, right from the age of twelve, when I moved to the USA. While working as a Laboratory Assistant at the Immunology and Histology Lab of UC Davis Veterinary School in 2009-2010, I became deeply aware of the vast amount of medical information stored and retrieved by accessing a database. This personal experience of the power and efficacy of computers impressed on me the importance of technology as a tool in research. I discovered that the hands-on processing of data gives me immense satisfaction. Gradually, my earlier interest in science and research shifted focus from the traditional bench sitting to a computer oriented approach. Therefore, in my junior year of college, I declared my major as Biotechnology, with a Bioinformatics option that combined my interests in both technology/informatics and biology/genetics. The Applied Bioinformatics course I took in the fall of 2010 confirmed that my special interest lay in the field of bioinformatics and its application in genetic/genomic studies. Craving further practical experience in this field, I opted for internships at different laboratories: Theg Lab, UC Davis; Molecular Anthropology Laboratory, UC Davis; Dubcovsky Wheat Genetic Lab, UC Davis;

Utilitarianism and Kantianism Essay Example for Free

Utilitarianism and Kantianism Essay In the history of ethics, two major viewpoints emerge: the consequentialist and the nonconsequentialist. The consequentialist view is based on or concerned with the consequences of one’s actions, while nonconsequentialist views are not. One major consequentialist ethical theory is utilitarianism. This theory, whose principle architects were Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), derives its name from utility, which means usefulness. Utilitarianism is commonly found in two forms: act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism essentially states that everyone should perform that act which will bring about the greatest good for everyone affected by the act. Fundamentally, this theory requires that each individual assess the situation and determine which act would bring about the greatest amount of good consequences for the maximum number of persons involved. While act utilitarianism sounds nearly ideal, there are several criticisms to this theory. For one, it very difficult to ascertain what consequences are good for others, given that all individuals hold different sets of morals, values, and beliefs. Furthermore, there is a certain impracticality in having to begin anew because not all acts and situations are entirely different. It would also be difficult to educate others given there is no distinct set of rules or guidelines. And finally, one must consider the rights of those â€Å"few† whom do not benefit from that action which will bring about the greatest good. To provide answers to many of the above mentioned criticisms, rule utilitarianism was established. In this form, utilitarians believe that everyone should establish and follow those rules that bring about the greatest good for all concerned. In other words rule utilitarians, from experience and careful reasoning, try and establish a series of rules that when followed, will yield the greatest good for humanity (i. e. â€Å"never kill except in self defense†). Associated with rule utilitarianism are some of the same criticisms encountered with act utilitarianism. Again, it becomes difficult to determine consequences of others. Furthermore, non-rule moralists argue strongly that there is no rule in which one could not find at least one exception. In contrast, one major nonconsequentialist theory is Kantianism. This theory, often called â€Å"Duty Ethics,† was formulated by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). Kant believed that nothing was good in itself, except the attribute good will, which acts in accordance with rules regardless of consequences. Another human attribute Kant proposed was equally of importance, was one’s ability to reason. He therefore believed it was possible to establish a valid set of absolute moral rules on the basis of reason alone without reference to God. Kant’s two requirements for an absolute moral truth include both logical consistency (cannot be self-contradictory as a statement) and universalizability (stated so as to apply to everything without exception). At the center of Kant’s moral philosophy is the categorical imperative from which all our moral duties originate. Such principles of morality are described as an imperative because they command a certain course of action. In other words, it is a categorical imperative because it commands, independently, particular ends and desires of the moral agent. According to Kant, these imperatives must be obeyed in their entirety, by all, and in all circumstances. For example, someone who is only inclined to be generous, rather than generous out of duty, is not fully moral. Like many other moral theories, there are several criticisms of Kantianism. In some circumstances duties, which Kant describes as universal, conflict. For example, should one break a promise (which is immoral by Kant’s standards) to keep another from being harmed? Sometimes it is impossible to ignore the outcomes of our actions. Kant’s approach also allows for no exceptions which can result in negative consequences. Another criticism to Kantianism is the question of whether or not a qualified rule is any less universalizable then on that is unqualified. In other words, Kant never distinguished between making a rule and qualifying it. And lastly, what happens when one’s inclinations and duties are the same? Does that then make them an immoral being in the truest sense of the word? Most would argue that it is better for someone to do something because they want to rather, than because it is their duty.

Movie Review: A Time To Kill :: essays research papers

Movie Review: A Time To Kill I never read A Time To Kill by John Grisham because the book bored me. But I wonder why it did bore me because the movie was engrossing and entertaining. Maybe it is because Akiva Goldsman took out most of the boring parts. I usually love Grisham, but this book was just too slow. However, another thing that made the movie more entertaining is the actors. The movie begins with the rape scene that you have probably heard about. If you haven't, it's a quick-edited scene so it doesn't show much, but still makes your stomach churn. Jake Brigance (Matthew McConaughey) describes it graphically in his summation. Anyway, what makes the scene so shocking is that it is a 10 year old girl being raped. The two men are captured and while ascending a staircase for their preliminary trial, the girl's father, Carl Lee Hailey (Samuel L. Jackson), runs out of a closet with a gun and shoots the two men and a cop. The two men die and the cop has his leg amputated. This sets off the main plot of the story. Hailey gets Brigance to defend him for virtually nothing. During a courtroom scene, Eileen Roarke (Sandra Bullock, in a surprisingly small role for having top billing) helps Brigance to get the trial moved to another town. Unfortunately, the judge (Patrick McGoohan) decides against moving the trial. Brigance needs to get a jury of young, married men with children. What does he get? A jury of women and old men. So Brigance has his work cut out for him, especially when he is up against the cruel and cheating Rufus Buckley (Kevin Spacey). The film moves along quickly, which I wasn't expecting. The movie is 145 minutes long, but it seems shorter than this. The book is over 500 pages, so Goldsman had his work cut out for him. But he did a great job and made the movie more entertaining than the book. As I said, the actors must have had something to do with it as well. Matthew McConaughey is superb as Brigance. This is his first movie and it will probably make him famous. His summation is one of the best parts of the movie. He says it with great emotion that, not only can the jury relate with, but so can the audience. Samuel L. Jackson is always good and there is one particular scene where he gives a small talk to Brigance. It is powerful, even if it is short. That's how good Jackson is.

The Internet :: essays research papers fc

What is the Internet? The question is actually difficult to answer, because the answer is continually changing with time. About a decade ago, the Internet would have been, â€Å"All networks, using the IP protocol, that collaborate to form a seamless network for their collective users.† But more recently the Internet itself consists of thousands of independent networks at academic institutions, military installations, government agencies, commercial enterprises, and other organizations. (Long, 197)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When one gets on the Internet they are exposed to everything the Internet can give them. They can chat with people from all over the world, view the thousands of files, and send electronic mail. The possibilities of the Internet are endless. The Internet was first started as a U.S. Defense Department network called the ARPAnet. The ARPAnet was an experimental network designed to support military research. In particular, research about how to build networks that could withstand partial outages and still function. Say in a nuclear war, if one part of the network was to be disabled, the network would still be operational. (Krol, 11) To send a message across the ARPAnet, a computer only had to put its data in an envelope, called an Internet Protocol packet or IP, and address the packets correctly. The communicating computers –not the network itself-were also given the responsibility to ensure that the communication was accomplished. The philosophy was that every computer on the network could talk, as a peer, with any other computer. (Krol, 11) In 1971, the ARPAnet included more than 20 sites. Ten years later in 1981, more than 200 sites were linked. (Krol 11) After a couple of years passed, ARPAnet had grown so much that they needed to make rules to govern the ever-growing network. The rules were called the standard protocol, and would allow communication between dissimilar computers and networks. As time went on the networks gradually adapted to each other and fused together to form the Internet. And because of this the ARPAnet was no longer needed, and ceased to exist. (Long, 198)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  How does the Internet work? The Internet is built around the concept of â€Å"layers of service.† This level consists of wires and hardware, and not always very good wires. Then you add a layer of basic software to shield yourself from the problems of hardware. You add, yet, another layer of software to give the basic software some desirable features. You continue to add functionality and smarts to the network, one layer at a time, until you have something that is useful.

Ethical & Legal Issues in Counseling Essay

Counselors like any other medical professionals are guided by professional ethics when it comes to performance of their duties. More often than not, mental health professions are usually faced with the challenge to observe ethical guidelines and legal concerns due to the unique criteria that comes with their job. Primarily, the ethical requirement requires the confidentiality, privacy, and professional relationship between the counselor and the client. This is meant to safeguard the well being of the client and the society at large. The American Counseling Association however provides the ethical guidelines to help these professionals to be able to strike a balance between the ethical practice and the legal requirements depending on the condition of the patient. This leads us to the ethical and legal issues in counseling profession which stems from the 1976 Supreme Court ruling in the State of California better known as the Tarasoff v. Regents of University of California ruling. This paper shall review the California Supreme Court ruling giving details of the case and its implications on the counseling profession. It will also revisit the Virginia Tech Tragedy and draw comparisons between the incident and the Tarasoff decision. Review of California Supreme Court findings: Mental health professionals are confronted with scenarios in which the patients are expressive of some tendencies to cause harm to other individuals. This presents a dilemma on what should the mental health professional do in an effort to avert the imminent danger that the client might pose to the third party. In legal terms, this has been referred to as ‘the psychotherapy’s duty to warn or protect third parties’. The duty to warn and/or protect the third parties came up during the Tarasoff V. Regents of the University of California case in 1976. After learning of the incident in detail, the California Supreme Court observed that the psychotherapists engaged in the treatment of mentally disturbed patients had the duty to warn the threatened individuals based on their reasonable care in an effort to prevent the foreseeable danger that may arise from the condition of the patient (Buckner, and Firestone, 2000). In this landmark ruling, the Supreme Court had learnt of the negligence of the parties concerned which culminated in the death of the Tatiana Tarasoff. The facts of the case outlined that Prosenjit Poddar and Tatiana were in a relationship which to Poddar, was destined to be intimate. However, when Tatiana revealed to him that they were not going to be in such a relationship Poddar was heartbroken leading to the start of the emotional and mental breakdown. Tatiana left for Brazil in the summer of 1969 and Poddar’s conditions started to show some signs of improvement. He was later to enroll for psychotherapeutic sessions after a friend advised him to do so and became a voluntary outpatient at Cowell Memorial Hospital. He was placed under the care of Dr. Lawrence Moore and it is argued that he confided to the doctor that he was going to commit murder. He was referring to Tatiana, his supposed girlfriend when she returned from Brazil (Buckner, and Firestone, 2000). Dr. Lawrence Moore took an initiative to notify the police officers based on the campus regarding the intentions of his patient. He even wrote a letter to the police Chief based at the campus elaborating that Poddar was suffering from an acute and severe paranoid schizophrenic reaction and that he could be a danger not only to himself but also to the other people. The doctor proposed that he was ready to sign the seventy-two hour surveillance order if the police decided to pick up the patient and relocate him to Herrick Hospital. The doctor also observed that his patient’s behavior could at times be rational. Doctors Gold and James Yandell, who were supervisors to Dr. Moore, agreed with his diagnosis and recommendations that Poddar needed to be hospitalized. The patient was taken by the police and put into custody. The police officers including Gary L. Browning; Joseph P. Halleran; and Atkinson interrogated Podder and found out that he was indeed rational and had changed his attitude. The police however released Poddar from custody after he promised to avoid Tatiana and stay far away from her. On the same issue, Dr. Harvey Powelson, who was the Director of Psychiatry at Cowell Memorial Hospital ordered for the return of the letter that had been written by Dr. Moore to the police chief requesting for the 72-hour emergence detention of Poddar. He called for its destruction including the notes that had been written by Dr. Moore on the patient. The Director also issued warnings against taking of any action in putting Podder under the 72-hour emergency surveillance (Buckner, and Firestone, 2000). In the month of October 1969, Tatiana returned from Brazil and Poddar failed to live by the promise that he had made to the police and continued to pursue her. It is claimed that Poddar stopped his appointments with Dr. Moore after Tatiana had returned from her trip. However, the Supreme Court observed that Poddar had stopped seeing the psychotherapist after he was detained by the campus police. All the same, towards the end of October in 1969, Podder went to check on Tatiana at their home. At first he could not find Tatiana and was ordered to leave by Tatiana’s mother. Podder was to come back later equipped with a knife and a pellet gun. This time, he was lucky to find Tatiana alone at home. Tatiana refused to speak to Poddar and upon insisting, Tatiana started screaming. This prompted Poddar to aim at her with the pellet gun with Tatiana running wildly from the house. Poddar pursued her and was able to catch her up in the yard stabbing her severally. Poddar then retuned to the house and informed the police of what he had done asking to be handcuffed (Buckner, and Firestone, 2000). Dr. Kermit Gruberg, who was serving the Berkeley Police Department upon observation of Poddar in less than twenty four hours of the incident, confirmed that Poddar was a victim of paranoid schizophrenia. Poddar was charged with murder though he refused to enter a plea on the ground of insanity. Some times before he was tried, examinations from a neurologist who was hired by the defense indicated that Poddar had organic abnormalities in his brains. During the trial, Dr. Philip Grossi, Dr. Gruberg, Dr. Anderson, Dr. Moore, and Dr. Gold gave testimonies that Podder was insane and a paranoid schizophrenic. It was during the testimonies of Dr. Moore and Dr. Gold that the details about the victim’s plans to murder Tatiana were exposed. Poddar was convicted to second degree murder and following numerous appeals, he was released and ordered to immediately leave the United States, never to come back (Buckner, and Firestone, 2000). Vitaly and Lydia Tarasoff, who were parents to Tatiana, filed the wrongful death suits against the University of California and the psychotherapists who were treating Poddar. The parents alleged four actions which included failure to detain Poddar by the psychotherapists and failure to warn the Tarasoffs that Poddar was of potential danger to their daughter. The other two allegations included the one directed towards Dr. Powelson following his activities in abandoning a dangerous patient and the last one was regarding the ‘Breach of Primary Duty to Patient and the Public’ which was more same to the first allegation (Buckner, and Firestone, 2000). The rulings of the Alameda County Superior Court and the court of appeals dismissed the case ruling in the favor of the defendants. It was argued that there was no special relationship between the defendants and Tatiana or her parents and thus there was no obligation to warn. Dr. Powelson was said to have had no duty to commit Poddar and in case he did so, this action was fdiscretionary and in accordance with the statutes. The Tarasoffs were not satisfied and sought redress from the California Supreme Court (Buckner, and Firestone, 2000). California Supreme Court Decision and its impacts on counseling profession: The decision made in 1976 by the Supreme Court is said to be a second time in considering the case. The very first decision was made in 1974 whereas the second decision emanated from the re-hearing which was granted in 1975. The first decision exemplified that the campus police had a case to answer for having failed to warn Tatiana whereas the second decision was freed them from all legal responsibility (Buckner, and Firestone, 2000). In the second decision, psychotherapists were handed greater latitude to offer protection to the potential victims. In the first decision by the California Supreme Court, the defendants claimed that had no obligation to issue any warnings to Tatiana or the Tarasoffs since they were not patients to the therapists. The court rejected this view while observing some exceptions. Under this the court observed that though the defendants had an exceptional relationship with Poddar as their patient; they had even attempted to control his behavior through the initiation of a police detention (Buckner, and Firestone, 2000). The defendants were also opposed to the duty to warn potential victims calling it problematic in the performance of their duties. However, the Court was quick to assure that not all incidences reported could result into the duty to warn and that a reasonable degree of skill, knowledge, and care would be required in exercising good judgment within the acceptable professional opinion. On the need to protect the confidentiality of the patient, the Court observed that limitation must be observed in disclosing information to prevent danger of patients to other individuals. In the second decision, the California Supreme Court required the psychotherapists to discharge duty to the endangered third parties by other means apart from warning them. The ‘duty to warn’ was therefore changed to become ‘the duty to protect’ under the second decision. The Court held on the decision that required the psychotherapy to protect third party victims upon using reasonable care aimed at protecting the other individuals from the dangers posed by their patients. The Court held that the Psychiatrists could warn the would be victims directly, sending other people who are likely to inform the intended individual, informing the law enforcement agencies, or taking any necessary step depending on the situation (Buckner, and Firestone, 2000). Following the landmark ruling in the Tarasoff v. Regents of University of California, many individuals thought that such a decision was an abnormal one and likely to be overlooked. The professions in mental health also observed that this decision was aimed at undermining psychotherapy practice through the destruction of the principles of confidentiality. Such observations were to be proved wrong since in a couple of year’s time, a New Jersey Superior Court in the McIntosh v. Milano (Buckner, and Firestone, 2000), indicted a psychiatrist basing on the Tarasoff incident. It has to be observed that the California Supreme Court decision which required the mental health professions to give a warning to third party individuals who were in potential danger from their patients has been adopted in most jurisdictions and the decision has even been broaden to incorporate other areas in healthcare practice (Buckner, and Firestone, 2000). The American Counseling Association (ACA) elaborates on the steps to be taken when there is a conflict between the established code of ethics and law requirement. The ACA observes that in the event there is a conflict, the counselors have the duty to make known their commitment to the ACA Code of Ethics and when the conflict stands unresolved by this; counselors have no choice but to relinquish their code of ethics and adhere to the laws and regulations. This means that the law reigns when there is a conflict between the established ethical responsibilities and the law (Docstoc, 2010). The Tragedy at Virginia Tech: Preliminary facts regarding the tragic incident at the Virginia Tech in the year 2007 were appalling. On this fateful day, 33 students and staff lost their lives in a shooting spree carried out by one of the students at the institution. The perpetrator was an English student known as Cho Seung-Hui who was described as a loner by his colleagues and is said have been identified by at least two of his professors as troubled. Earlier on the fateful day, Cho Seung-Hui is said to have mailed a tape to NBC News after having killed two of his victims. In the tape, he fumed against the wealthy in the society and argued that the society was to blame for his actions. The tape indicates that Cho Seung-Hui was full of rage and that he was emotionally troubled. His roommates and friends observed that Cho Seung-Hui showed anti-social tendencies on campus. He is said to have rarely engaged in conversations and was known for one word answers especially on questions that could expose much of him. Further more it has been established that much of the writings made by Cho in his course work revealed violence and murderous images and fury directed towards the female gender (Angelo, 2007). The incident at the Virginia Tech relates in many aspects to the Tarasoff case where the defendants failed to issue warning to the victim and her family. The United States Department of Education findings indicate that the institution dishonored the established campus crime-reporting legislations in responding to the shootings. It is argued that after the first shooting incident occurred at around a quarter past seven in the morning only for the university to issue the e-mail warning at around nine thirty. A moment later the gunman went on a shooting spree which resulted in the death of 33 students and professors including the gunman who shot himself. Timely warning was not issued and that the e-mail that was issued was inadequate as it failed to comprehensively pass the message. The mail read, ‘shooting incident’ without mentioning any fatalities. There is no justification for the two hour delay from the very first incident and the vagueness of the warning. The Virginia Tech officials had enough information that could have helped in identifying the threat and passing information to students and employees (Lipka, 2010). After the shooting, many people have claimed to have raised an alarm regarding Cho’s behavior two years before the incident. His English teacher at the institute is said to have been alarmed by his drawings and even asked him to stay out of class. There were also two other complaints rose by female students at the institution. Cho is said to have contacted one of the female in person and by phone and the other through instant message. After the incident were reported to the campus police, the only asked Cho not to repeat his advances. In the year 2005, the victim is said to have been ordered to a psychiatric observation by a court which revealed that he posed imminent danger to himself. He is also said to have spoken of suicide on several occasion. The officials from higher education claims that these observations are in contravention with the student’s right to privacy. Thus the institution was not in any position to conduct the parents of Cho without his consent on his background (Angelo, 2007). It is evident that those who had some crucial information on Cho Seung-Hui did not take the bold step on sharing the same. It is assumed that by sharing the information that colleagues and professors held about that the young man harbored could have seen the ugly incident averted through psychotherapy. It has been argued that his roommates and some professors had observed some warning behavioral traits. According to the findings of the 2007 Report to the President on Issues Raised by the Virginia Tech Tragedy; it was found that there are impediments in sharing of crucial information. One of the findings read; Education officials, healthcare providers, law enforcement personnel, and others are not fully informed about when they can share critical information on persons who are likely to be a danger to self or others, and the resulting confusion may chill legitimate information sharing (The White House, 2007, para 4) Conclusion: In the Tarasoff incident, the patient is said to have revealed of his intention to kill the girlfriend to the psychiatrists but the therapist failed to issue a warning to the intended victim which tragically ended in the death of the victim. The therapists were found to be answerable for having failed in their duty to warn the victim of the potential danger posed by their patient. The psychiatrists cited breach of confidentiality in their defense which was dismissed by the Supreme Court ruling by offering guidelines on the confidentiality issue. The Virginia Tech incident on the other hand presents a scenario where the institution was barred by the right to privacy to inquire into the psychiatric background of the student gunman and this led to the fatal incident where many lives were lost in cold murder. Reference: Angelo, J. M. , (2007). Tragedy at Virginia Tech. Retrieved on 17th July 2010 from; http://www. universitybusiness. com/viewarticle. aspx? articleid=758 Buckner, F. , and Firestone, M. , (2000). â€Å"Where the Public Peril Begins†: 25 Years After Tarasoff. Retrieved on 17th July 2010 from; http://cyber. law. harvard. edu/torts01/syllabus/readings/buckner. html Docstoc, (2010). Ethical and Legal Issues in Counseling Practice. Retrieved on 17th July 2010 from; http://www. docstoc. com/docs/18350933/Ethical-and-Legal-Issues-in-Counseling-Practice Lipka, S. , (2010). Virginia Tech Contests Education Department’s Assertion of Late Warning in 2007 Shootings. Retrieved on 17th July 2010 from; http://chronicle. com/article/Virginia-Tech-Disagrees-With/65613/ The White House, (2007), Report to the President on Issues Raised by the Virginia Tech Tragedy, Retrieved on 17th July 2010 from; http://www. hhs. gov/vtreport. html

South Africa - Apartheid essays

South Africa - Apartheid essays Thesis- That the era of apartheid in South Africa enforced racist ideals on to the minds of society, and although is no longer in place, has left legacy that may never South Africa is a country tormented by a past of enforced racism and separation of its multi-racial community. The superior white Europeans invaded the country and imposed a political system known as Apartheid (meaning apartness). This system severely restricted the rights and lifestyle of the non-white inhabitants of the country forcing them to live separately from the white Europeans. This system of imposed racial ideas although now ended, has left an imprint on the thoughts and actions of society in South Africa today. Dutch farmers known as the Boers settled the African lands. Eventually, a rising great Britain noted the rich resources and strategic location of the country. Britain imposed its rule on rebellious Boers, pushing the Boers off their land and eventually sparking the Boer war. Britain employed an overwhelming force to subdue the Boers. Ironically the Boers, now called Afrikaners, triumphed. . The Afrikaners imposed the Apartheid system, which aimed to turn the already segregated society into completely divided and separately developing racial communities The Apartheid system brought about many laws to ensure that the races of South Africa were kept separate. The first major law was the Race Classification Act which divided the citizens of South Africa into separate groups, white, black and coloured. With this also came the Group Areas Act, which was imposed to ensure that whites and blacks lived separately. South Africa was divided into separate areas for each race. As a persons race could not only be judged by appearance, people had to carry something to prove their identity. The reference or pass book was introduced to ensure that people were not in the wro...

Free sample - Alcoholism. translation missing

Alcoholism. AlcoholismAlcoholism is am addiction disease. It is widespread and serious disease, which exists in a modern world. Alcoholism brings consequences on physical, psychological, social and economical functioning of a person that consumes alcohol. Even if alcohol is being consumed for centuries, studying the harmful effects that alcohol causes started recently. In the beginning, alcoholism was not considered a disease, it was considered a vice. However, the World Health Organization declared alcoholism a disease in 1951, and the problem related to defining alcoholism appears. Defining alcoholism was difficult because the â€Å"alcoholism† includes variety of physical, psychological and social changes. Ayd defined alcoholism as a chronic disease with combined influence of genetic, psychosocial, and environmental factors, which have strong influence in the development of alcoholism and its manifestations. It is considered as a progressive disease, which can be fatal, and it can be characterized by reduced control over consummation of alcohol, high level of preoccupation with alcohol, usage of alcohol (despite consequences), and possible appearance of distortions in thinking (such as denial) (27). Alcoholism is a chronicle disease, characterized with persistent consummation of alcohol, even with the knowledge of harmful effect that it produces. It manifests as incapability of controlling the act of drinking, and as a time goes by the whole life of an alcoholic is subordinated to drinking. The drinking is conducted, usually, on a daily basis, and it can be common for an alcoholic to deny this craving, although they do not want to eliminate the alcohol from their life. DSM IV classification represents alcoholism as an illness that includes alcohol abuse and dependence, which can be episodic or continuous. Alcoholism can be viewed as use of alcohol in a quantity and a frequency, which causes significant physiological, psychological, sociological or occupational problems (Ayd, 21). World Health Organization presented the following definition of alcoholism: â€Å"A chronic behavioral disorder manifested by repeated drinking of alcoholic beverages in excess of the dietary and social uses of the community and to an extent that interferes with the drinker’s health or his social or economic functions† (Zimberg, 4.). Jellinek (via Zimberg) gave the classification of several types of alcoholism: â€Å"alpha alcoholism†, defined as an abuse of alcohol, which is used to relieve physical or psychological pain, without losing the ability to control the drinking, with no withdrawal symptoms and no significant progression of the disease. â₠¬Å"Beta alcoholism†, defined as an alcoholism that has no physical or psychological dependence; it can be progressive and can produce medical complications. â€Å"Gamma alcoholism† represents the type of alcoholism in which control over drinking does not exist, and it produces physical, psychological and social problems. â€Å"Delta alcoholism† is a type of alcoholism that produces physical, psychological and social problems, and the person that drinks has a potential possibility of abstaining from alcohol for some period. â€Å"Epsilon alcoholism† is described as a periodic binge drinking (4). Symptoms of alcoholism - There is no one symptom that could define the alcoholism. The symptoms of alcoholism can be diverse and can vary, mostly depending on the person that consumes alcohol.   Stimmel mentioned that the National Council on Alcoholism has developed a list of signs and symptoms for diagnosing alcoholism, and that they can be divided into two main groups: definitive and probable (103). According to National Council on Alcoholism (via Stimmel), definite symptoms are: physical dependency on alcohol, followed with tremor, hallucinations and seizures; changes in psychological functioning; influence of alcohol on a brain; complications caused by drinking alcohol; continuous drinking with no consideration to many medical contraindications; indiscriminate use of alcohol; alcoholic blackouts; blood alcohol level over the 0.15 -0.30 percent. Probable symptoms of alcoholism are: loss of control over drinking; repetitive drinking and/or morning drinking; repeated attempts to a chieve abstinence; excuses from work; denying alcoholism by changing the type of alcoholic beverage; lack of interest for activities that are not associated with consummation of alcohol; low ability to control the emotion of rage when drinking, possible suicidal thoughts when drinking; using of alcohol as a method to reduce insomnia, anger and depression (103). O'Neill and Sher have emphasized next group of symptoms: spending a lot of time during the day or night thinking about alcohol, neglecting obligation because of consummation of alcohol, being late or missing the school or work, feeling a strong need for a drink early in the morning, attempting to stop with drinking, and feeling dependent on alcohol. (496). Some other symptoms of alcoholism might be tolerance and withdrawal (with possible severe withdrawal symptoms - hallucinations or convulsions), reduction of the number of activities because of drinking, using alcohol in potentially dangerous situations (driving), and time spent drinking (the time spent to consume alcohol increases over time). As the time goes by, an alcoholic will have to drink more to achieve the same â€Å"effect† that alcohol provides, and there is a possibility to see them drinking alone, by themselves, and finding excuses for exaggerated drinking. Causes of alcoholism - The alcoholism is a disease, which is caused by interaction of multiple causes. Causes are often complex and they have become numerous during the time. Grant and Gwinner considered following factors as main factors which help development of alcohol dependence: biological (impact on central nervous system, metabolism of alcohol, sensitivity to alcohol), psychological (personality traits and attitudes), and socio-cultural factors (64). According to Gifford, the causes of alcoholism should be looked for in genetics, environment and neurology (29). Also, a person who has mood disorders (anxiety or depression) is at higher risk to become dependent from alcohol. Genetics: There are evidences that support the thesis of inherited predisposition to alcohol dependence (Gifford, 29). It can be manifested as person’s vulnerability to alcohol dependence, due to the functioning of opiate receptors and the functioning of a liver. However, having a parent that is dependent on alcohol does not mean that a person will become an alcoholic itself. Genetic predispositions combined with other groups of factors (such as environmental factors) might contribute to appearance of alcohol dependence. Environment: the influence of a family on person’s development can be seen in a behavior related to alcohol consumption. Children who have alcoholic parents are at four times higher risk of developing alcohol dependence than children whose parents do not consume alcohol (Gifford, 30). The contributing influence on alcohol drinking can be availability of alcohol, being surrounded with peers that consume alcohol, advertising of alcohol (making it attractive and desirable), conflicts at the work or in home, and the presence of a partner that consumes alcohol. Other authors summarize causes of alcohol dependence, and some of them are family influence, influence of a culture, and adult situation (McCord McCord, 150). Anthony et al. conducted a research that gave following results: males are more prone to develop alcohol dependence than women are (249). Person from age 25-34 years old are more prone to develop alcohol dependence (251). Lack of employment, low academic achievement can bring a risk of development of alcohol dependence (253). Neurology: abuse of alcohol causes changes in entire body, and it especially leaves harmful consequences to a sensitive tissue of the brain. The main consequences are related to disbalance of neurotransmitters. Consummation of alcohol can cause disbalance of chemicals in the brain tissue, and it can regulate, in some way, the chemical balance in the brain. Whenever this balance is disturbed the brain might cause the body to feel the need for alcohol, in order to keep the balance of chemicals in order, while, at the same time, brain gradually looses the ability to maintain the balance on its own (Gifford, 30). Impacts of alcoholism - Alcohol consumption leads towards many complications, which can be general and long term, and can involve every aspect of a person’s life. Impact of alcoholism can be seen in health condition, psychological functioning, and socio-cultural aspect of a person’s life. According to Gifford, the most common health problems related to alcohol dependency are: problems with endocrine system (liver-alcoholic hepatitis, cirrhosis, which produces secondary effects: vitamin deficiency, decreased absorption of fat, damages in cell structure, low blood sugar, etc. (32, 33), pancreas-diabetes), and digestive system (damage of intestine’s walls (can cause bleeding), reducing the amount of digestive enzymes (34)). There are significant problems with cardiovascular system (blood-appearance of anemia, blood clots, suppressing of the immune system, problems with creation of platelet, heart-high blood pressure, heart attack, stroke, coronary artery disease, myocarditis, alcoholic cardiomyopathy, arrhythmia (34, 35)). Sexual related problems include practicing sex without any protection (pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases), and the appearance of problems with sexual performance in males. Alcohol can influence on women’s pregnancy and cause fetal alcohol syndrome and numerous defects on a fetus, if a mother continues to drink during the pregnancy (36). Impact of alcohol on a nervous system is manifested on brain (disbalance of neurotransmitters and tissue degeneration. Some of the problems that can occur are amnesia, dementia, abstinence syndrome and Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome (35, 36)) and damages of nerves (peripheral neuropathy (36)). Alcohol can contribute to problems with respiratory system: lung infections (pneumonia, tuberculosis) and possible lung scarring (36). Impact on psychological life can be seen in appearance of depression and suicidal thoughts, anxiety, possible visual and auditory hallucinations (Spielberger, 126). Social complications are related to drunk driving, worse performance at work or at school, and relationship problems (Gifford, 39). Treatment of alcoholism – because alcohol dependency is a complex disease with various types of alcohol users, and numerous causes, the treatment of this disease should use the combination of multiple types of therapy. The most common therapy is based on a combination of psychological (â€Å"12 step facilitation†, group therapy-Alcoholic Anonymous (AA), â€Å"controlled drinking† (Spielberger, 126)), and pharmaceutical therapy (such as using of naltrexone). The behavioral therapy is being used in a combination with pharmacotherapy, because psychological treatment is, sometimes, not effective for all patients (Galanter, 4). The following statistic gives insight into the severity of the alcoholism as a social problem: 14 million people in the U.S.A. are alcohol dependent. 66% of the U.S.A. population consumes alcohol. 9.8 million men and 3.9 million women abuse alcohol or they think they are alcohol-dependent. 41% of all traffic fatalities in U.S.A. are caused by drinking alcohol. Approximately 43% of U.S.A. adults have had a child, parent, sibling or spouse who is dependent on alcohol, or was dependent on alcohol† (citation is retrieved from the internet site1). Ayd, Frank J. Lexicon of psychiatry, neurology, and the neurosciences. Lippincott Williams Wilkins, 2000 Anthony, James C. , Warner, Lynn A., Kessler, Ronald C. Comparative Epidemiology of Dependence on Tobacco, Alcohol, Controlled Substances, and Inhalants: Basic Findings From the National Comorbidity Survey. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology. 1994. Vol. 2, No. 3, 244-268 Galanter, Marc. Research on alcoholism treatment: methodology, psychosocial treatment, selected treatment topics, research priorities. Springer, 2003 Gifford, Maria. Alcoholism. ABC-CLIO, 2009 Grant, Marcus, Gwinner, Paul. Alcoholism in perspective. Taylor Francis, 1979 McCord, William Maxwell, McCord, Joan. Origins of alcoholism. Stanford University Press, 1960 O'Neill, Susan E., Sher, Kenneth J. Physiological Alcohol Dependence Symptoms in Early Adulthood:A Longitudinal Perspective. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology. 2000, Vol. 8, No. 4, 493-508 Spielberger, Charles D. Encyclopedia of applied psychology, Volume 1. Academic Press, 2004 Stimmel, Barry. Alcoholism, drug addiction, and the road to recovery: life on the edge. Routledge, 2002 Zimberg, Sheldon. The clinical management of alcoholism. Psychology Press, 1982

Effective dose of atropine Essays

Effective dose of atropine Essays Effective dose of atropine Essay Effective dose of atropine Essay The treatment will try to depict the undermentioned subjects of phase2 and phase3. Effective dosage of Atropine, selective dosage Atropine, Atropine and B16, effectual dosage of Chlorphenamine. , selective dosage of Chlorphenamine, Chlophenamine and B16, Mimicry of B16, Digestion by pseudo-cholinesterase on B16, protection by Neostigmine of B16, and potentiation of B16. The receptor selectivity and the clinical utilizations of the drugs involved will be briefly mentioned. Acetylcholine is an acetic acid ester of choline. It s a neurotransmitter that acts on cholinergic synapses to propagate nervus urges. It has high and equal authority for muscurinic and nicotinic receptors. It is besides extremely susceptible to breakdown by cholinesterase. ( Sb1035 Dr E Gaskell Lecture notes on ANS ) Methacholine is a man-made choline ester that has a high authority for muscurinic receptors, and a low authority for nicotinic receptors. It is non broken down by Pseudo-cholinesterase, and is easy broken down by acetyl-cholinesterase. It s used in lung map trials to find if a patient has Asthma, it causes brochospasm to happen. ( http: //www.drugs.com/cdi/methacholine-solution.html ) Carbachol is agonist of the muscurinic and nicotinic receptors, but is more powerful on nicotinic curates. It is non broken down by Cholinesterase. Its clinical application includes the intervention of Glaucoma. It causes contraction of round musculus in the oculus taking to an addition in end product of aqueous temper. ( Sb1035 Dr E Gaskell Lecture notes on ANS ) Atropine is alkaloid which is obtained from the works Atropa deadly nightshade ( lifelessly nightshade ) blocks cholinergic receptors. Its clinical utilizations involve dilation of the student of the oculus, during oculus scrutinies. Chlorphenamine is an antihistamine it blocks histamine receptors. It clinical utilizations involve the intervention of allergic reactions, such as itchiness. ( Robert M. Youngson, 1999, Collins lexicon of medical specialty, Glasgow, Hapercollins ) Neostigmine is a reversible cholinesterase inhibitor. As it interferes with the dislocation of Acetylcholine is prolongs the consequence of it. Its clinical usage includes the addition in the musculus tone of people with Myasthenia Gravis. ( Robert M. Youngson, 1999, Collins lexicon of medical specialty, Glasgow, Hapercollins ) 1.1 Effective dosage of atropine The purpose of the first experiment was to find the effectual dosage of Atropine. Three doses of atropine were titrated with Acetylcholine. These were Lower 110-8M, average 110-7M, and higher 110-8M. The consequences from figure 1.1 show that the medium dose 110-7M was the most effectual dosage, as it caused a displacement of the log-dose curve to the right diminishing its authority. Besides this dosage did non impact the Emax significantly. The Emax was shown to be 94 % ( for Acetylcholine with Atropine dose 110-7M. ) The authority was found to diminish from 1.310-7M for Acetylcholine without Atropine ( at clip 0 ) , to 2.610-5M for Acetylcholine with Atropine dose 110-7M. The smaller dosage had an consequence in diminishing authority ( 1.810-6M ) , but a larger Emax was produced 143 % . The higher dosage caused Acetylcholine non to react to do a contraction in the Guinea hog ileum. Using the higher dosage of Atropine gave an Emax of 0, and an Ed50 of 0. This meant that the dosage o f Atropine was excessively high to move as a competitory inhibitor, and hence irreversible suppression had taken topographic point. ( SB2040 mini undertaking slides. September 2009 ) 1.2 Selective dose Atropine. The purpose of this experiment was to find if the effectual dosage of Atropine is besides a selective dosage. As the effectual dosage of Atropine has been established to be 110-7M, it is critical that the effectual dosage is selective for muscurinic receptors. This was done by utilizing the autocoid agonist Histamine. Histamine binds to H1, H2, H3, and H4 receptors, non muscurinic receptors. A selective dosage of Atropine should non diminish the authority of Histamine. The consequences from figure 1.2 show that Histamine with and without antagonist Atropine have close Emax and ED50 values. The Emax for Histamine at clip 0 gave an Emax of 100 % and an ED50 of 310-6M. The Emax for Histamine and Atropine ( 110-7M ) was found to be 103 % , and the Ed50 was found to be 7.510-6M. The Emax for Histamine repetition was found to be 88 % , and the Ed50 obtained was 2.310-6M. Even though there is a little lessening in authority for Histamine with Atropine, this difference is little, and hence c an non be important. The consequences display that the chosen dosage of Atropine 110-7M is an effectual and selective dosage for cholinergic receptors. That Atropine did non affect Histamine activity. ( SB2040 mini undertaking slides. September 2009 ) 1.3 Atropine and B16. The purpose of this experiment was to find what the effectual and selective dosage of Atropine ( 110-7M ) had on the unknown drug B16. Figure 1.3 shows that atropine had a important consequence on the authority of B16, with little alterations in Emax. The Emax of B16 entirely at clip 0, and clip 25 of the experiment was 100 % , and 79 % severally. The Ed50 for B16 entirely at clip 0, and clip 25 was 2.210-7M and 4.510-7M severally. The little alterations may be due to weave desensitisation, and due to the high affinity of Atropine. ( Meaning after washouts Atropine is still present ) Two B16 with Atropine cumulative log dosage responses were performed, at clip 10 and besides clip 15. The Emax and ED50 for B16 with Atropine at 10 proceedingss were 80 % , and 2.510-5M. For B16 with Atropine at 15 proceedingss the Emax and ED50 were 89 % and 2.010-5M. A important decrease in the authority can be seen from B16 entirely 2.210-7M to B16 with Atropine 2.0-2.510-5M. This implies competitory hostility was taking topographic point. This means that Atropine was barricading Cholinergic receptors, which B16 acts on. Hence it may be deduced that B16 is a cholinergic agonist, and it possibly Acetylcholine, Methacholine, or Carbachol. ( SB2040 mini undertaking slides. September 2009 ) 2.1 Effective dosage of Chlorphenamine. The purpose experiment 2.1 was to find an effectual dosage of Chlorphenamine. Chlorphenamine is an adversary of Histamine receptors. An effectual dosage is a dosage which will cut down the authority of Histamine ; nevertheless the same dosage should non impact the Emax of Histamine. Three doses of Chlorphenamine were tried out 110-7M ( high dosage ) , 110-8M ( medium dosage ) , and 110-9M ( low dosage ) . The consequences from figure 2.1 show. Histamine without adversary at clip 0 showed an Emax of 100 % and ED50 of 9.510-7M. Histamine with Chlorphenamine dose 110-9M produced an Emax of 150 % , and an ED50 of 2.110-6M. This shows that with the lower dosage of the adversary the efficaciousness is increased, and the authority is decreased. The medium dosage of adversary gave an Emax value of 107 % , and an ED50 value of 710-6M. This shows a important lessening in authority, and a similar Emax value compared to Histamine entirely ( at clip 0. ) The higher dosage of Chlorphenamine displa yed an Emax of 0, and a authority of 0 intending irreversible hostility has taken topographic point. Over all it can be seen that the most effectual dosage is 110-8M, because the Emax has non changed significantly, and the authority has been reduced. The log dosage curve has been shifted to the right manus side. ( SB2040 mini undertaking slides. September 2009 ) 2.2 Selective dosage of Chlorphenamine, The consequences from figure 2.2 show that Acetylcholine at clip 0 gave an Emax value of 100 % , and the authority calculated to be 1.910-7M. Acetylcholine with 1.910-7M of Chlorphenamine displayed an Emax of 107 % , and a authority of 1.110-7M. The consequences display that there is no important alterations in Emax or authority with the adversary. Overall it can be seen the dosage selected is effectual and selective for Histamine receptors. ( SB2040 mini undertaking slides. September 2009 ) 2.3 Effective and selective dosage of Chlorphenamine on B16. The purpose of experiment 2.3 was to measure if the effectual and selective dosage for Chlorphenamine was capable to competitively antagonize the unknown drug B16. The consequences from figure 2.3 shows three log dose responses as follows. B16 entirely at clip 0, B16 and chlorphenamine 110-8M, and B16 at clip 25. The consequences display the Emax`s as 88 % , 100 % and 89 % severally, and the ED50 values are 2.2 x10-6M, 1.010-5M, and 7.010-6M severally. From the consequences it can be demonstrated that the effectual and selective dosage of Chlorphenamine did non hold any important consequence on the drug B16. This means shows that B16 is non moving on the autocoid receptor H1. This besides confirms the earlier determination that B16 is a muscurinic agonist. ( SB2040 mini undertaking slides. September 2009 ) 3.1 Mimicry of B16 with other muscurinic agonists. The intent of the apery was to detect for other muscurinic agonists and to look for similar efficaciousness and authority values of that of unknown drug B16. B16 gave an Emax value of 100 % , and an ED50 value of 2.010-7M. This was similar to the values for Acetylcholine, and Methacholine. Acetylcholine gave an Emax value of 90, and ED50 value of 1.810-7M. Methylcholine gave an Emax value of 88 % , and an ED50 value of 1.810-7M. Carbachol gave a higher authority value of 1.010-7M, and a significantly lower Emax of 70 % . One account for Carbachol is that it acts more powerfully on nicotinic receptors, than muscurinic receptors. The tissue may incorporate less nicotinic receptors than muscurinic receptors ensuing in a lower Emax. B16 resembles the same authority and efficaciousness values as Acetycholine, and Methacholine. ( SB2040 mini undertaking slides. September 2009 ) 4.1 Digestion by pseudo-cholinesterase/ 4.2 Protection by Neostigmine. The consequences for Acetylcholine show that Acetylcholine by itself displayed a 100 % response. Acetylcholine with pseudo-esterase gave a 0 % response. The add-on of Acetycholine, esterase, and neostigmine gave a 96 % response, and the duplicability of Acetycholine was 78 % . This indicates that Acetycholine is capable to be digested by Pseudo-Cholinesterase from the Equus caballus s blood, and besides is protected from digestion by Neostigmine. The consequences for Methacholine show that Methacholine with pseudo-esterase and Neostigmine gave a maximal response of 100 % . Methacholine with esterase gave similar gave a response of 53 % . This is similar to Methacholine at clip 0, ( 41 % ) , and besides the duplicability curve for Methacholine 36 % . The consequences indicate that Methacholine is non capable to digestion, and that the add-on of Neostigmine has resulted in a heightened response. It may be possible that a important sum of esterase is already present, therefore cut downing the maximal possible response ab initio. There are two types of esterase Acetycholinesterase, found in synapses, and pseudocholinesterase found in the blood. Methacholine is easy broken down by Acetylcholinesterase, and is non affected by pseudo-cholinesterase. The add-on of Neostigmine has seemed to offer protection from the former, taking to a greater response of Methacholine. Brody ( 1998 ) / hypertext transfer protocol: //www.circ.ahajourna ls.org/cgi/content/full/94/6/1197 # top The consequences for Carbachol show that Carbachol, pseudo-esterase and Neostigmine gave a maximal response of 100 % . Carbachol with blood esterase gave a response of 60 % . This is near to the Carbachol at clip 0 ( 46 % ) , and Carbachol duplicability ( 70 % ) . These consequences are an anomalousness because Carbachol is non digested by both types of cholinesterase. ( Sb1035 Dr E Gaskell Lecture notes on ANS ) One account possibly is that a important sum of Acetylcholine possibly be already being released by the tissue, therefore a heightened response is seen with the add-on of Neostigmine. The consequences for B16 show that B16, esterase, and Neostigmine, gave a maximal response of 100 % . It shows that the effects of B16 are being potentiated by Neostigmine. This consequence is similar to that of Carbachol, and Methacholine. The responses of B16 at clip 0, B16 with blood esterase, and for B16 duplicability were 42 % , 36 % , and 44 % . These values bespeaking that B16 is non hydrolyzed by pseudo-cholinesterase. When comparing B16 to Methacholine, and Carbachol it has similar responses to Methacholine more than Carbachol. Overall B16 is non Acetylcholine. It possibly Carbochol, Methacholine or have similar belongingss to them. 4.3 Potentiation The consequences for Carbachol at clip 0 gave an Emax of 108 % and an ED50 of 910-7M. The duplicability curve for Carbachol gave an Emax of 87 % , and an ED50 value of 2.2 x10-6M. Carbachol and Neostigmine, gave a low Emax of 27, and an ED50 of 1.010-6M. The consequences show that the Emax and ED50 have been reduced with the add-on of Neostigmine. Therefore Neostigmine has non potentiated the effects of Carbachol. The Emax for Acetylcholine at clip 0 was 100 % , the ED50 was calculated to be 1.010-5M. The Emax for the duplicability of Acetylcholine was found to be 41 % , and the ED50 2.510-7M. Acetylcholine and Neostigmine displayed an Emax of 70 % , and an ED50 of 3.510-7M. The consequences display that there is some indicant for an addition in authority for Acetylcholine. The Emax of Methacholine at clip 0 and The ED50 were 100 % , and 210-6M severally. For Methacholine Repeat the Emax was 65 % , and the ED50 was 510-7M. For Methacholine with Neostigmine the Emax was found to be 75 % , and the ED50 was found to be 1.210-7M. It can be seen that the potency of Methacholine has increased with the add-on of Neostigmine. The consequences for B16 entirely display an Emax of 100 % , and an ED50 of 5.510-7M. The consequences for B16 repetition display an Emax of 80 % and an ED50 of 810-6M. B16 and Neostigmine displayed an Emax of 60 % , and an ED50 of 2.510-6M. The consequences display that Neostigmine has failed to potentiate B16, similar with Carbachol. ( B2040 mini undertaking slides. September 2009 ) Drumhead The adversary Atropine has worked on B16 by doing competitory suppression. This means that B16 cholinergic agonist, and possibly Acetylcholine, Methacholine, or Carbachol. Chlorphenamine had no counter consequence on B16. Therefore B16 does non move on autocoid H1 receptors, and this determination supports the fact that B16 is a Cholinergic Agonist. B16 has demonstrated to hold similar efficaciousness, and authority values as Acetylcholine, and Methacholine. B16 is non digested by Pseudo-cholinesterase, so is non Acetylcholine. Neostigmine has failed to potentiate B16, like Carbachol. In decision B16 is a parasympathomimetic drug. It could be Carbachol or has similar pharmacological belongingss as Carbachol ; nevertheless farther duplicability trials need to be performed to rebut or back up this. In peculiar the experiments that displayed B16 mimicked Methacholine more than Carbachol need reiterating. Mentions Sb1035 Dr E Gaskell Lecture notes on ANS, Dr P Elliot talk notes on autacoid, and Dr Andy Evans notes on pharmacological medicine. September2009 SB2040 mini undertaking slides. September 2009 hypertext transfer protocol: //www.circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/94/6/1197 # top ( accessed on 29/11/09 ) www.medicinescomplete.com/mc/martindale/2009/4520-n.htm ( accessed on 29/11/09 ) hypertext transfer protocol: //www.mercksource.org/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_dorlands_split.jsp? pg=/ppdocs/us/common/dorlands/dorland/two/000016969.htm ( accessed on 29/11/09 ) Robert M. Youngson, 1999, Collins lexicon of medical specialty, Glasgow, Hapercollins hypertext transfer protocol: //www.drugs.com/cdi/methacholine-solution.html Accessed ( 30/11/09 ) hypertext transfer protocol: //ajrccm.atsjournals.org/cgi/content/full/161/1/309 Accessed ( 30/11/09 ) Brody ( 1998 ) , Human Pharmacology,3rd edition, America, Mosby, pg106

Managing Quality, Customers and Performance Essay

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Economy recession Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

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Ergonomics - Essay Example Standards† written by O’Neill (2011) detailed the specifications for seating conformance to include elements such as the chair to the used, the chair seat height, the seat width, seat pan depth, seat pan tilt, the seat pan-backrest angle, and lumbar support. The detailed specifications, based on O’Neill’s (2011) discourse are as follows: (1) chair shall support the user’s back and thighs and must have a backrest that reclines; (2) the chair seat height shall be adjustable according to the user’s need to as much as â€Å"a range of 4.5 inches between 15 and 22 inches† (ONeill, 2011, p. 3); (3) the seat width shall meet the specified width of at least 17.7 inches; and (4) there shall be a support for the lumbar, as needed. The visual or eye standards should incorporate distance between the user and the monitor display. According to the Department of Energy (DOE) (2008), in the article entitled â€Å"Creating a Healthy Workstation Environment: Workstation Ergonomics Made Easy†, the optimum distance between the user’s eyes and the visual display by operators in seating position is 600 mm (Department of Energy (DOE), 2008, p. 7). Likewise, it was noted that special computer glasses that would assist in preventing eye fatigue and vision problems for long hours of monitoring visual displays shall be considered. It has been emphasized that the effectiveness of performance on undertaking monitoring of visual displays is affected by lighting. In this situation, it was stipulated that the operator does the monitoring in a dark room. According to ergonomic standards, light requirements actually vary depending on the performance of tasks. Since the operator focuses on monitoring visual displays from the computer, which already self-illuminating, less light is actually needed; but, it would help to provide focused task lighting (â€Å"a separate lamp†) (Department of Energy (DOE), 2008, p. 21) to assist in other tasks and prevent creating a totally dark

Entreprenenuship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Entreprenenuship - Essay Example However, the success rate associated with such business models depends on the business scope and strategic effectiveness of an entrepreneur. Specifically mentioning, the UK’s domestic market has currently emerged out of an economic recession. In this regard, it can be predicted about the difficulties faced for the success of the small and medium scale entrepreneurial businesses. Justification to this statement can be provided depending on the fact that within a stabilized economy, the existence of government restrains will be comparatively less and the scope of carrying out the business processes in an appropriate manner will be high (Trading Economics, 2014). Taking consideration of the aforementioned aspects, the discussion focuses towards understanding the significance of growing entrepreneurial business within an economically stabilizing nation such as the UK. In this context, different theories are considered with the aim of having a better understanding about entrepreneurial activity in the UK. Based on the above graph, it can be analysed that the UK economy has drastically entered into a state of instability between the periods of 2012 and 2013. However, the nation appears to have shown appreciable amount of economic growth between the 3rd quarter of 2013 and the final quarter of 2014. Thus, the nation has made consistent efforts towards attracting the attention of the young entrepreneurs who intended to establish their own business and contribute to the economic wellbeing of the UK. With stability within the economic growth pace, the chances of opportunity for entrepreneurship will be much higher in comparison to that of the necessity of entrepreneurship. Moreover, after the economic recession state, the UK government structure has also projected appreciable amount of flexibility within new business licensing and registration procedures in order to create the overall business establishment for new entrepreneurs as

Promoting Genesis fitness through youtube Research Paper

Promoting Genesis fitness through youtube - Research Paper Example The maximum amount to pay when one potential customer clicks an ad is 1 USD. Upon completing a set budget, the promotion page becomes inactive pending the following day. In this regard, it is possible for the Company to kick start the promotion strategy with any agreed budget and increase the budget with time. This is done by signing into the Company’s YouTube account, click on the account name located on the right side corner and select the preferred settings. Click on promote video link on the settings page. The company will achieve many benefits by promoting on YouTube which includes the following: it will reach out to new target audiences that the Company did not have or could not reach organically. The Company will also achieve its set goals of selling its services to the target customer. Above all, the Company will also turn the existing audiences to be subscribers and increase

The Role of Food in my Family Essay Example for Free

The Role of Food in my Family Essay In the words of Ruth Reichl, â€Å"Everything here is true, but it may not be entirely factual† (x). In thinking about this paper, I was drawn to reassess my relationship with my parents through the perspective of food. At times, I have embellished or exaggerated some of their characteristics or words, but the essence of their characters and our relationship is there. The events actually happened when I visited my family home during the summer vacation and I prepared blueberry muffins for my parents. Reflection upon my anticipation of the event, the cooking, and the eating led me to the following conclusion: food creates bonds between family members, allows each family member to define their role in the family, and allows them to express thoughts or feelings that they may not feel comfortable expressing in words. As I packed my bags to head home for the summer holidays, I made sure to pack the recipe for blueberry muffins I had found especially for my parents. Of all of the items on my packing list, this recipe was the most meaningful. My parents have always loved muffins, and this time, I was going to make them something special – a recipe that would allow me to share with them something of my experience in the United States. The trip to Indonesia is long, and as I got off the plane, I was filled with conflicting feelings: extreme fatigue from the long flight, disorientation from the jet lag, excitement about seeing my parents again, and hopeful that my parents were as excited to see me as I was to see them. This last feeling was confirmed. My mom greeted me with a warm hug, and my dad immediately took charge of all of my bags. Once I arrived home, I began unpacking and placed the all-important recipe in my purse. When I informed my parents that I had to go out to run a top-secret errand, the disappointment on their faces was obvious. I was touched that they wanted to spend some quality time with me, and I only hoped that the blueberry muffins would make up for some of their disappointment. As I set out on my shopping expedition, I was filled with excitement at the prospect of preparing a special breakfast for my family the next morning. I made my way to my favorite fruit and vegetable market, and to my surprise, I was completely overwhelmed by the sights, sounds, and smells so familiar to me from my childhood but which I had since forgotten. My intense reaction reminded me of my first traveling experience – to Singapore for summer school. Alone in an unfamiliar environment, I felt like a fish out of water. I did not know anyone and had to make my own way in a new country. Shopping for groceries felt like exploring a new universe – all of the products were different. The stores were arranged and smelled differently. Restaurants featured unfamiliar dishes. Even though Indonesia and Singapore are only a short geographical distance apart, in terms of food, they were in different worlds. My experience was very similar to Ruth Reichl’s as she arrived in Montreal to study at the College Marie de France: â€Å"I was on Mars, where no sound, no smell, no emotion was familiar† (59). I returned my attention to my present predicament, and I looked all over for the all-important blueberries. When I finally found them, I gasped in surprise at the extraordinarily high price. How could I have forgotten about the price of blueberries! It is not as if this was my first experience buying food in a â€Å"new† location. I say new because, after living in the United States, I have grown accustomed to American supermarkets. I had assumed that since I was shopping in my native country I would not be shocked by anything. Instead, I was shocked by how quickly my perspective had changed. I was a foreigner in my own country! Once I got over my initial shock at the exorbitant price, my eyes drifted from the price tag to the actual blueberries. What were these shriveled, greenish-blue things? These blueberries were a far cry from the plump, deep-blue, juicy, sweet blueberries I buy in the United States. My initial thought was, â€Å"are these dangerous and I going to poison my parents? † One thing I realized from reading Reichl’s â€Å"Mold† was that â€Å"food could be dangerous, especially to those who loved it† (5), and my parents loved muffins. I quickly dismissed this idea of danger: other people were buying these blueberries so they were probably not harmful in any way. My mind made up, I bought the questionable blueberries and made my way back to my parents’ house, quietly hiding the fruit so that my parents would not find it. That night, my mother made dinner for the family like she always does, with my dad carrying the serving dishes and the beverages to the table. Her meals always seem to be a variation on the same theme: meat and vegetables. Sometimes the meat is fish, sometimes it is steak, but there is always meat at dinner. Likewise, there are always vegetables. At times when I was growing up, I yearned for some more variety: pizza, spaghetti, quiche, anything besides meat and vegetables! This evening, however, the expected meal and all of my parents’ questions about my life in the United States brought me peace, for at last I was at home. After the meal, I excused myself from the table, telling my parents that I desperately needed to sleep. Before going to bed, I told them to expect something special for breakfast in the morning. The look on my mom’s face was worth a thousand words: a mixture of surprise and delight. It is rare that anyone other than she cooks at our house. In fact, I can count on the fingers of one hand the number of times I have prepared anything for my parents. Looking back on it, I believe she was excited at the prospect of not having to get up to prepare me a special breakfast for my first morning home. The next morning, I woke up early, filled with anticipation at the thought of baking. I hoped the muffins would turn out wonderfully. After seeing the look of delight on my mother’s face the previous evening, I did not want to disappoint her in any way. At the same time, I was hopeful that the muffins would turn out great and convey to my parents my desire to make them happy. I went to the kitchen, pulled out all of the ingredients, and placed the Barefoot Contessa’s recipe that I had found on the Food Network Website the counter. Here’s the recipe I used: Blueberry Coffee Cake Muffins Ingredients: †¢ 12 tablespoons (1 1/2 sticks) unsalted butter, at room temperature †¢ 1 1/2 cups sugar †¢ 3 extra-large eggs, at room temperature †¢ 1 1/2 teaspoons pure vanilla extract †¢ 8 ounces (about 1 cup) sour cream †¢ 1/4 cup milk †¢ 2 1/2 cups all-purpose flour †¢ 2 teaspoons baking powder †¢ 1/2 teaspoon baking soda †¢ 1/2 teaspoon kosher salt †¢ 2 half-pints fresh blueberries, picked through for stems Directions Preheat the oven to 350 degrees F. Place 16 paper liners in muffin pans. In the bowl of an electric mixer fitted with the paddle attachment, cream the butter and sugar until light and fluffy, about 5 minutes. With the mixer on low speed, add the eggs 1 at a time, then add the vanilla, sour cream, and milk. In a separate bowl, sift together the flour, baking powder, baking soda, and salt. With the mixer on low speed add the flour mixture to the batter and beat until just mixed. Fold in the blueberries with a spatula and be sure the batter is completely mixed. Scoop the batter into the prepared muffin pans, filling each cup just over the top, and bake for 25 to 30 minutes, until the muffins are lightly browned on top and a cake tester comes out clean. I followed the directions exactly, with one exception. I sprinkled some sugar on the blueberries to make them a little bit juicier. I had read about this technique with strawberries (Newton) and thought it would not hurt to try it with a different type of fruit. It seemed to make them a little bit more appetizing, but they still worried me. I did not want to disappoint my parents! Once the muffins were in the oven, I made coffee and began to set the table. As soon as the silverware made a clinking sound, my dad wandered into the kitchen, as if summoned by some sort of bell. He started to take the dishes, mugs, glasses, and forks from my hands so that he could take them to the table. This was, after all, his role, and a role that he had fulfilled at the airport when he took charge of my bags. Indeed, night after night, my mom would slave away in the kitchen, and my dad would bring the fruits of her cooking to the table so that we could enjoy it. When the muffins were finally ready, my parents and I sat down at the table to eat. Looking back on my first bite of these disappointing muffins made from inadequate blueberries, I am reminded of a portion of Molly Wizenberg’s blog â€Å"Orangette†: â€Å"The poor woman put me on this earth, and I made her iffy waffles. They tasted like nothing. I want to do better. † My parents have given me so much – life itself, food, shelter, support – and all I wanted to do was make some muffins that they would enjoy. This gesture was intended to show them how grateful I am for all of their love and support, even if I secretly at times thought them to be too demanding. My parents, however, did not seem to notice that the muffins were not amazing. Perhaps this was because they had never tasted really fresh blueberries. Instead, they seemed to be absolutely delighted by my gesture and took it in the spirit that it was given. As we sat around the table, I asked them questions about their work, their friends, and their hobbies. I really enjoyed the chance to get to know them better on this level. Normally, our table conversations consisted of questions about me (or my siblings): â€Å"How was school? † â€Å"How did you do on that test? † â€Å"What are you doing this weekend? † â€Å"Tell me about that boy you have been seeing. † The change in the dynamics of the conversation really put my family’s relationship with food in perspective. Now, I understand why my mom always made meals with meat and vegetables. It was her way of showing she cared for my physical well-being, much like her questions (which, when I was a teenager were extremely annoying) were her way of showing she cared about my future. For my mom, food seems to be a vehicle to communicate concern for health. My dad’s role seems to be as a messenger. Much like he could lay down the law in terms of rules, delivering them with an iron fist to a teenager determined to spread her wings; he could also deliver nutritious meals to the table. In both cases, his acts constitute his way of showing he cares. I, however, seem to be concerned that my parents are happy. I know that it must be hard for them to live alone after having spent so many years with a house full of kids, When I made muffins for them, I wanted them to be happy, and I wanted to be the one to bring them even a little bit of happiness. Works Cited Barefoot Contessa. â€Å"Blueberry Coffee Cake Muffins. † Foodnetwork. com. 2002. Web. 12 July 2010. Newton. â€Å"Strawberries and Sugar. † Ask a Scientist: General Science Archive. 30 June 2004. Web. 12 July 2010. Reichl, Ruth. Tender at the Bone: Growing Up at the Table. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks, 2010. Print. Wizenberg, Molly. â€Å"A Quick Couple. † Orangette. 10 May 2010. Web. 16 July 2010.

The Tourism Sector In Albania

The Tourism Sector In Albania Albania is a parliamentary republic, where the legislative power belongs to the Albanias Assembly and the head of the state is the President who is elected by the Assembly for a five year mandate with the right to be re-elected. The Council of Ministers is the highest executive and commanding organ which is directed by Prime Minister. According to Census 2011 preliminary results Albania has a population of 2,831,741 inhabitants in a surface of 28,748 sq km. Albania is located in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula. The country has a 750 km borderline with Montenegro to the North, Kosovo to the Northeast, Macedonia to the East, Greece to the South and Adriatic Sea and Ionian Sea (Italy) to the West. Albania has Mediterranean climate, which is characterized by hot summers and mild winters with abundant rainfalls. The period from June to September is hot, while from October to May is cool and wet. The average annual temperature varies from + 15oC in the north to + 16.5oC in the south. The hottest month is July with an average temperature of + 25oC and the coldest month is January with an average of +6oC, although the record temperature has been -34oC. For almost 45 years the communist regime, which was installed in Albania after the Second World War, left the country aside the rest of the world being part of the communist bloc of the Eastern Europe. The communist regime of Tirana even went further by isolating Albanian people totally and brought the country to collapse. With the fall of communist regimes of the Eastern Europe, Albania was the last one to join the free world. A democratic system was setup in power in 1992. Due to governments commitment to a free market economy, the country undertook a programme of reforms and made great efforts to recover from the fall of communist regime. However, the collapse of the fraudulent pyramid schemes in 1997 and the instability that followed were a tremendous setback for Albania. But the country did pursuit its way toward its dream, to be part of the European community. Till there country has made a great progress. Two big achievements are accomplished, in June 2006, the Albanian Governm ent signed a Stabilization and Association Agreement (SAA) with the European Union (EU), the first step in the EU accession process and three years later, in April 2009, Albania became a NATO member country. Now country is looking to accessing negotiations to be an EU member country. A range of reforms are progressing markedly over the last decade to Albanias economy and administration such as reforms in infrastructure development, tax collection, property law, business administration, judiciary system. The country was largely spared from the severe fallout of the 2008-2009 financial crisis since its economy is not heavily integrated into the Euro-Atlantic system. Economic progress of the country has slowed but remained positive, in each year from 2009 to 2011. The governments main task is to maintain positive economic growth while preserving macroeconomic stability. Major challenges are the difficult fiscal and budgetary environment and the crises in the Eurozone, especially in neighboring Greece and Italy (major trading partners of Albania with a large presence in the banking sector and also host to roughly one million Albanian emigrants). In 2011, GDP was estimated to have reached close to $13 billion. Major contributors to GDP according to 2010 preliminary data were: service sector with 57.6% including trade, hotels, and restaurants (20.9%), transport (6.3%), communication (3.4%), and other services 27%; agriculture 20.3%; industry 11.3%; and construction 10.7%. In 2011 unemployment officially stood at 13.3%. Half of the workforce is considered self-employed in the agriculture sector. GDP per capita in 2011 is estimated to have reached $4,560. Although GDP per capita has steadily increased over the years, the country still ranks as one of the poorest countries in Europe according to major income indicators. Albania has put in place a liberal foreign investment regime, and the government is working to improve the business climate through fiscal and legislative reforms and infrastructure improvements. Foreign direct investment (FDI) has increased significantly over the last few years and in 2010 reached $1.1 billion, up from $262 million in 2005. Since 2005, the Government of Albania has invested more than $2 billion in the countrys main road corridors, and it has pledged to continue investing heavily in improving transportation infrastructure. Electricity supply has also improved due to investments in new transmission lines and new generation sources as well as the privatization of the distribution system, which is gradually increasing efficiency. The EU remains Albanias main trading partner, providing 64.1% of Albanias imports and receiving 72.5% of exports as of December 2011. Trade with Italy and Greece continues to represent the largest share of EU trade, with a combined 41.1% of imports and 58.3% of exports in 2011. Other major trading partners include Turkey, China, and Germany. The impact of CEFTA in Albanias trade with member countries has been small. 2.1.2 Tourism in Albania The Potentials for Tourism Development in Albania Albania is a small country but a beautiful and fascinating country with substantial tourism development potential. Albania has an attractive coastline and a rich cultural and natural heritage. As Tourism Strategy on Culture and Environment  [1]  has highlighted, country has a wide range of historic, cultural and natural attractions that are of great interest to international tourists. The same assessment is made to the countrys very rich culture and heritage by Culture Marketing Strategy  [2]  document, too, stressing that Albania has a very rich, distractive, and authentic culture and heritage from the Greco-Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman and other historic periods up to the modern day. This assessment is mentioned also to verbatim comments from interviews with western tour operators and travel writers  [3]  , where one of them have citied that Albania is an archaeological site from tip to toe, going back to Illyrian settlements, Greek colonies, Roman occupation, not to ment ion the invasions from Goths, Bulgars, Byzantines, Crusaders of the Holy Roman Empire and Ottomans who all but stopped time in tracks. Evidence of these civilizations are everywhere in Albania, and its time to let the world see the great and wondrous sitesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦... Albania has 3 World Heritage Sites Butrint, Gjirokaster and Berat. Beaches are long and sandy with hot sunny summers with about 250 sunny days. The mountain areas offer opportunities for niche tourism activities like hiking, biking, canoeing etc. Plenty of National Parks and other natural reserves offer ecological experiences. Country offers beautiful and diverse landscapes and abundant and varied flora and fauna. Current tourism markets Since the late 1990s, after the 97 instability in the country and 99 war in Kosovo, tourism activities are increasing. As figures  [4]  show there is a considerable increasing number of international visitors after the year 2000, due to the improvement of regional and inner country political climate and enhance of the security in the country. A big impact to the increase of the flux of tourists from Kosovo has show the new highway linking Albania with Kosovo. Even this increasing numbers are impressive, the tourism sector in Albania cannot be regarded as being well developed. Infrastructure has been till late a major limitation. The government in power has evaluated the development of infrastructure as very important and is investing heavily in improvements  [5]  . Data from the table below shows that: Total foreign visitor traffic increased by 18.4% in 2010 compared to 2009 to 3,612,000 visits. Taking into consideration the crisis time this is an excellent performance for Albanian tourism. 33% were non-resident Albanians and 66.1% were foreign staying visitors in 2010. Much of the increase came from Kosovo. This is evident to see the impact that the new highway with brought to Albanian tourism, a clear indicator of strong growth created by improvements in infrastructure. According to MoTCYS data, for the year 2011 a total of some four million visitors entered in Albania. They included 2,734,000 foreign tourists and 1,267,000 non-resident Albanian nationality visitors. The figures demonstrate that the biggest increase of foreign tourists in 2010 was coming from Kosovo with 48.79% followed by Macedonia with 11.43% compared to 2009. The foreign tourists from western countries havent made such a big progress. Also, as can be seen, the number of non-resident Albanians has been increasing in 2008 and 2009, while in 2010 the figure has faced a decrease. From the table below can be seen the increasing number of visitors in July and August. Such a phenomenon is shaping drastically the seasonality of tourism in Albania. In 2010 the number of tourist that visited Albania in these two months was 55.44% compared to the number of all visitors. Also, another problem related to these figures is the high dependency in Balkan region tourist flow. This demonstrates that the tourists in July-August are coming only for sea and sand and populating only the coastal areas. Strategic directions for tourism at national level According to National Strategy for Tourism Development in Albania 2002 2012, developed with the assistance of GTZ, the main tourism products for Albanian tourism are defined sun and sea, business and special interest tourism  [6]  . While the Strategy and Action Plan for the Development of the Albanian Tourism Sector Based on Cultural and Environmental Tourism was developed within the directions and structure established by the 2002 Tourism Development Strategy 2002-2012 for Albania. This document provides a new orientation for the government to position Albania as an attractive destination for tourists seeking a unique experience which encourage them to discover Albanias culture and nature. Discovery of Albania is a presentation of a broad cross-section of Albanias history, nature, archaeology, living culture, cuisine and hospitality. The graphic below presents a simple schematic. Core and Specialised Tourism Products Source: Strategy for the Development of the Albanian Tourism Sector Based on Cultural and Environmental Tourism. Ministry of Tourism, Culture, Youth and Sports, UNDP December 2005 According to strategy document, Albanias core (primary) tourism product must be a general one that encourages visitors to discover the many facets of Albanias culture and nature. Albanias central product will be the discovery of Albania. The product is a presentation of a broad cross-section of Albanias history, nature, archaeology living culture, cuisine and hospitality. Visitors participating in this discovery will leave with a lasting impression of the diversity, complexity and beauty of culture and the land. This segment does not make a strong distinction between cultural, natural and other tourism products. Visitors in this segment tend to combine many different activities during their visits, and usually see the various natural and cultural activities as part of the process of discovering the destination. Referring to the major market segments mentioned above, the tourism resources in Albania are in favor and support the types of community-based tourism, i.e. nature-based tourism, adventure tourism and cultural tourism. Considering these tourism resources, the following types of activities can be developed: Nature: Visiting national parks and protected areas Viewing wildlife Seeing rare species Trekking, hiking Bicycle trips Education and learning Participation in local events; and River and lake exploring. Culture: Visiting cultural and heritage-related attractions Visiting museums and art centres Meeting with artists Meeting people from various ethnic nationalities Seeing local handicrafts and the process of making them Visiting scenic landmarks and religious sites Trying local food Participating in local traditional ceremonies and festivals Buying traditional crafts and local specialties. Potential to development Albania offers infinite potential to investors to take advantage of unexplored opportunities in tourism, and helping to develop this industry into a key strategic sector in the countrys economy. Albania has a young population, with a high level of instruction and able to communicate with foregners in defferent languagies. Albanian is located at short distances from the main European capital cities and albanians are friendly and very hospitable people. The improved Rinas international airport, and different ports from the north to the south easy the access to the country. The continuing improvement and development of the infrastructure in the country, is facilitating moving inside the country. Continuing improvements are being made to encourage investors to develop the infrastructure for tourism in Albania. Just like other countries in the Western Balkans, Albania has put into place legislation and investment initiatives designed to support the economic growth of the country compatible with European policies and working principles. The Albanian Government has made support of the current and future expansion of tourism a priority, with the goal of transforming the country into a Mediterranean tourist destination and placing it on the world map of tourism. In an effort to support the continuing development of the tourism industry in Albania and to make this country a tourist destination, the importance of the active engagement of the local and international Business Community and strong Partnerships between community based organizations, government and regional development agencies is a must. Internal transport is likely to remain a major limitation for tourism in the foreseeable future except perhaps for road transport along key highways where upgrading / reconstruction is already planned or committed. In the WEF Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report, Albanias tourism infrastructure is rated in the bottom two in the region (See Table 2.2). In recent years there has been an increasing interest from incoming foreign tourists, especially with significant increasing numbers of international tourist groups generated from Croatia and Montenegro, organised in one or two days tours to Albania. Also Business and Trade tourism accounts a considerable number of foreign visitors. Neighbour countries, such as Italy, Greece especially are related to trade and business purpose of visit of their nationals. From the western tourists visiting Albania in 2006, are identified those arriving from Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Greece, USA, Canada, France, Austria, Belgium, Netherlands, Scandinavia, Switzerland, the neighbouring countries and regions (Kosovo, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Macedonian, Bulgaria), East Europe (Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Russia). Diaspora is another source for the inbound tourism, where the ethnic Albanians from Kosovo do count considerable numbers. The new road under construction from Milot (the crossroad to the highway Tirane-Shkoder) to Morini (the boarder-crossing point with Kosovo) will influence to increase the numbers of Kosovos citizens to access the Albanian coastal area. The market profile of visitors who enter to Albania by road from Muriqani and Hani i Hotit (the boarder-crossing points with Montenegro) with interest for Shkodra region for the year 2006 is as below: Foreigners who are living and working in Albania have also recently started to create an internal tourism demand. While there is no official record on domestic tourism in Albania, domestic tourism is the dominating form of tourism. This is mainly focussed on beach centred holidays. 1.3.2 National context for Tourism Development Albania has a great potential for tourism development based on its natural, cultural and human resources. The country has an attractive coastline, rich biodiversity with lagoons, lakes and the mountain areas each with unique flora and fauna, unspoiled nature and attractive scenery, cultural and historical sites and interesting traditional life-styles. The country therefore has the potential to develop the types of tourism products that are in demand from the international market in the Mediterranean region. Beside to the long and sandy beaches along the Adriatic coast and these rocky ones with crystal and clean sea waters of the Ionian coast, its natural and protected areas are basic for developing niche tourism activities such as eco-tourism and nature based activities. Such an activities can be hiking, trekking, walking, horseback-riding, river rafting, paragliding, mountain biking, climbing, canoeing, sightseeing, bird watching, fishing. Rural green and agri-tourism offers new opportunities for communities to benefit from tourism by offering visitor experiences based on traditional lifestyles. Albania also can offer cultural tourism through its archaeological sites and historic cities and villages. Albania is a short distance destination for Europe; it is within 3 hours of flying time of most major European cities and therefore is a short haul destination for the potentially huge European market, the World tourism Organisation predict that by 2020 the Mediterranean Region which includes Albania will be a hotspot for tourism, thus there is a great potential for Albania to develop and expand its tourism industry. On the other side, uncontrolled development in tourism areas has harmed the potential of these areas for tourism development. Even the measures taken by the government to legalise the illegal buildings are not considering for the moment those constructed in tourism areas, it is not clear what will be the measures taken in these areas to improve the environment by the harm of illegal buildings. Some significant measures are taken recently by the government. These measures, at the national level, encompass strategy and policy documents such as, the development of the Strategy for Cultural and Environmental Tourism in 2005 and the development of a new tourism website in 2006. A new Tourism Law (Nr.9734, dated 14.5.2007) was adopted by the parliament and a number of regulations approved by the government is thought to regulate the tourism sector development. Tourism development is the responsibility of the MoTCYS (Ministry of Tourism, Culture, Youth and Sports). NTA (National Tourism Agency) is an autonomous body outside the MoTCYS, being responsible for promotion activities through the production of promotional materials and participation in the international tourism fairs. The most attended fairs, regularly from years in Berlin (ITB) and London (WTM), and to RDA (Keln) from 2007. At the regional level, six tourist information offices are approved to be established in Tirana, Shkodra, Vlora, Saranda, Korà §a and Durres. At the national level there are operating two business Associations for Tourism Travel Agencies and one Association of Hotels. A GTZs project on Institutional building of tourism private sector in Albania is in the process for the time being with the aim to establish a strong representation for all the sectors involved in tourism, with the common interest providing services to the members as well as building relationship and cooperation with the public sector. Albanian Rourism Even the figures on tourist arrivals are growing considerably year after year in Albania, the country has remained highly dependant on summer holidays. Looking on the statistical data published recently in the websites of Ministry of Tourism, Culture, Youth and Sports (http://www.mtkrs.gov.al/) and of National Tourism Agency (http://www.akt.gov.al/akt/text.php?id=1lang=1), is easily evident that the number of visitors visiting Albania succeeded 2.5 million in 2008 and only for the period January August 2009 this figure was over passing 2.1 million. As reported by MTCYS, the number of visitors in 2008 (2.578.627 visitors) is compound as international visitors 1.330.138, from which 1.247.125 were overnight visitors and 83.013 same day visitors, and 1.248.489 visitors were Albanian nationals residing abroad. While the number of visitors for the period January August 2009 (2.111.981 visitors) is compound as 1.402.558 international visitors and 709.423 Albanian nationals residing abroad . But does this picture speak for real success in the development of Albanias tourism as a tourist destination visited by the western tourists? We have to bear in mind that the main reason for the development of tourism is attracting foreign visitors from countries with strong currencies. Tourism is considered a hidden export that brings money (hard currency) to the country. Referring to the Strategy and Action Plan for the Development of the Albanian Tourism Sector Based on Cultural and Environmental Tourism produced by Ministry of Tourism, Culture, Youth and Sports with the support of UNDP in 2005, Albania will specialize in attracting educated, independent travelers and specialized group travelers. The principal target markets will be upper-middle income individuals from Europe (primarily northern Europe and the United Kingdom) and North America. This segment represents the demographic segment with the highest willingness to pay for Albanias unique products, and whose spending patterns will most contribute to advancing development goals. Also, in this strategic document is specified that Albanias central product will be the discovery of Albania. The product is a presentation of a broad cross-section of Albanias history, nature, archaeology, living culture, cuisine and hospitality. Visitors participating in this discovery will leave with a lasting impr ession of the diversity, complexity and beauty of the culture and the land. The question is this: Are these kind of tourists visiting Albania contributing to this strategic direction? The answer is, NO.